Functional imaging of the embryonic pacemaking and cardiac conduction system over the past 150 years: technologies to overcome the challenges

The Anatomical Record. Part A, Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology
Florence RothenbergMichiko Watanabe

Abstract

Early analyses of cardiac pacemaking and conduction system (CPCS) development relied on classic histology and visual inspection of the beating heart. Current techniques that facilitate delineation of the CPCS include the use of specific antibody markers and transgenic mouse lines specifically expressing reporter genes. Assaying the function of tiny embryonic hearts required an increase in the level of spatial and temporal resolution. Current methods for such analyses include the use of intracellular and extracellular microelectrodes, echocardiography, rapid optical imaging using fluorescent dyes, and most recently optical coherence tomography. This review will focus on methods developed to investigate the functional emergence of the embryonic cardiac conduction system. Where appropriate, the methods used to delineate the anatomic pathways will also be discussed. The combination of techniques to capture both morphological and functional data from the CPCS will further improve with continued interdisciplinary collaboration. The Supplementary Material referred to in this article can be found at the Anatomical Record website (http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0003-276X/suppmat).

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Citations

Dec 2, 2005·Anatomy and Embryology·Kiyomasa Nishii, Yosaburo Shibata
Oct 4, 2006·Journal of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology·Alexandre SarreEric Raddatz
May 16, 2006·Journal of Electrocardiology·Frank PillekampJuergen Hescheler
Feb 27, 2016·Mechanisms of Development·Kiyomasa NishiiYasushi Kobayashi
Aug 14, 2020·Birth Defects Research·Michael A SchellpfefferRonald T Wakai
Mar 22, 2016·Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease·Michiko WatanabeMichael W Jenkins

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