PMID: 8994212Jan 1, 1997Paper

Participation of noradrenergic pathways in the expression of opiate withdrawal: biochemical and pharmacological evidence

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
R Maldonado

Abstract

Several lines of biochemical and pharmacological evidence provide support for the involvement of the noradrenergic system in the expression of the somatic symptoms of opiate withdrawal. Early studies reported changes in brain noradrenaline and metabolite levels during opiate dependence. The significance of these changes has been clarified in recent microdialysis studies indicating that acute morphine decreases the extraneuronal levels of noradrenaline, whereas an increase in release of the neurotransmitter occurs during opiate withdrawal in several brain areas. Changes in the sensitivity and density of alpha 2- and beta-adrenoceptors have also been reported, probably as a consequence of the decreased presynaptic noradrenergic activity induced during morphine dependence. In addition, the administration of alpha 2-agonists, such as clonidine, or beta-antagonists, such as propranolol, has been reported to attenuate some manifestations of opiate withdrawal. The noradrenergic structure mediating the expression of opioid abstinence seems to be the locus coeruleus. However, the activation of the locus coeruleus during morphine withdrawal seems to be primarily due to the afferent projections containing excitatory amino acids and derive...Continue Reading

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