Sex Differences in Nutrition, Growth, and Metabolism in Preterm Infants

Frontiers in Pediatrics
Pradeep Alur

Abstract

Biological differences between the sexes are apparent even from the early part of the pregnancy. The crown-rump length is larger in male fetuses compared to females in the first trimester. Placentae of male and female fetuses have different protein and gene expressions, especially in adverse conditions. Even within the intrauterine milieu, the same extracellular micro RNA may show upregulation in females and downregulation in male fetuses. There appears to be a natural survival advantage for females. Maternal glucocorticoids (GC) play an important role in fetal growth and organ maturation. However, excess glucocorticoids can not only affect growth but the response may be sex-specific and probably mediated through glucocorticoid receptors (GR) in the placenta. Mild pre-eclampsia and asthma are associated with normal growth pattern in males, but in female fetuses, they are associated with a slowing of growth rate without causing IUGR probably as an adaptive response for future adverse events. Thus, female fetuses survive while male fetuses exhibit IUGR, preterm delivery and even death in the face of another adverse event. It is thought that the maternal diet may not influence growth but may influence the programming for adult dis...Continue Reading

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Citations

Sep 22, 2020·World Journal of Clinical Cases·Yossy MachlufOrna Tal
Aug 9, 2020·Stress : the International Journal on the Biology of Stress·Alexandra GarafovaDaniela Jezova
Jun 5, 2020·International Journal of Obesity : Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity·Heqin YangHaijun Gao
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Jan 1, 2021·International Journal of Molecular Sciences·Sophida PhuthongSilvia M Arribas
May 27, 2021·Journal of Perinatology : Official Journal of the California Perinatal Association·Fu-Sheng Chou, Hung-Wen Yeh
Jun 15, 2021·Frontiers in Pediatrics·Marijn Jorien VermeulenMario Rüdiger
Jul 3, 2021·International Journal of Molecular Sciences·Donna Elizabeth SunnyMatthias Heckmann
Aug 1, 2021·Placenta·Monica StrawnSusanta K Behura
Sep 8, 2021·Journal of Biosocial Science·Michel GarenneJonathan C Wells
Sep 28, 2021·Frontiers in Medicine·Freya WaschkiesFrauke von Versen-Höynck

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BETA
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