The movements of limb segments and joints during locomotion in African and Asian elephants

The Journal of Experimental Biology
Lei RenJohn R Hutchinson

Abstract

As the largest extant terrestrial animals, elephants do not trot or gallop but can move smoothly to faster speeds without markedly changing their kinematics, yet with a shift from vaulting to bouncing kinetics. To understand this unusual mechanism, we quantified the forelimb and hindlimb motions of eight Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and seven African elephants (Loxodonta africana). We used 240 Hz motion analysis (tracking 10 joint markers) to measure the flexion/extension angles and angular velocities of the limb segments and joints for 288 strides across an eightfold range of speeds (0.6-4.9 m s(-1)) and a sevenfold range of body mass (521-3684 kg). We show that the columnar limb orientation that elephants supposedly exemplify is an oversimplification--few segments or joints are extremely vertical during weight support (especially at faster speeds), and joint flexion during the swing phase is considerable. The 'inflexible' ankle is shown to have potentially spring-like motion, unlike the highly flexible wrist, which ironically is more static during support. Elephants use approximately 31-77% of their maximal joint ranges of motion during rapid locomotion, with this fraction increasing distally in the limbs, a trend observ...Continue Reading

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Citations

Dec 25, 2008·Die Naturwissenschaften·John R Hutchinson, Vivian Allen
Aug 12, 2009·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·Tracy L Kivell, Daniel Schmitt
Mar 31, 2010·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·Lei RenJohn R Hutchinson
Dec 19, 2013·PloS One·William Irvin SellersPhillip Lars Manning
May 1, 2013·American Journal of Veterinary Research·Robert B BradyPaul Devita
Nov 21, 2013·Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society·Susannah C R MaidmentPaul M Barrett
Apr 20, 2016·Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America·Manabu SakamotoChris Venditti
Mar 6, 2016·The Journal of Experimental Biology·Brandon M KilbourneJohn A Nyakatura
Oct 31, 2018·ELife·Giovanna CatavitelloFrancesco Lacquaniti
Nov 18, 2016·Royal Society Open Science·Olga PanagiotopoulouChristofer J Clemente
Feb 14, 2017·PloS One·Martin HoraVladimír Sládek
Feb 4, 2021·Journal of Anatomy·Hazel L RichardsAlistair R Evans
Feb 16, 2010·The Journal of Experimental Biology·J J GeninN C Heglund
Jun 9, 2021·The Journal of Experimental Biology·John R Hutchinson
Aug 28, 2021·Animals : an Open Access Journal From MDPI·Siriphan KongsawasdiChatchote Thitaram
Apr 27, 2010·Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology·Wilfried Klein, Jonathan R Codd

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